Combining Teaching Writing with Technology
In this day and age, technology is progressively becoming more of an integral aspect of our lives. We use it every day, ranging from brushing our teeth with an electric tooth brush, to checking up on relatives via electronic mail. In the realm of education, technology is a part of students’ lives too. Each concentration taught in schools now integrates technology in some way. Teaching writing is no exception. Arguably, this aspect of education might not be readily deemed as one that merits technological integration. However, close examination proves that teaching writing can be effectively combined with technology to develop effective pedagogy.
To understand the progression of technology within teaching writing, one must first trace its origins. Denis Baron asserts that “the first technology was writing itself” (From Pencils to Pixels, 18). This suggests that writing in itself was an innovation, as communication preceding this was accomplished by mere gestures and verbal exchange. The development of writing, however, was met with much opposition. Baron affirms his argument by stating, “Just like the telegraph and the computer, writing itself was once an innovation strongly resisted by traditionalist because it was unnatural and untrustworthy” (18). Though initially incorporated as a means of record-keeping, arguments regarding utilizing writing were brought about by Plato, who feared “that it would weaken our memories” (18). This fear, however, did not keep the spread of technology from occurring. The incorporation of technology within teaching writing has clearly maintained its share of critics and supporters, even from the very beginning.
Early writers eventually recognized the versatility of writing, and though not intended, soon shifted the designation of writing from record-keeping to transcription. Baron cites the development of the pencil as the next notable development in writing technology (Baron 22). Though there were primitive means of transcription, no universal tool was adapted until the inception of the pencil. Similar to writing, the pencil began as a device that was not initially designed to be incorporated into writing.
Baron notes that pencils were first intended mainly “for woodworkers, not writers” (27). Beginning initially as a mere lead-pointed stylus, the pencil progressed to a “piece of graphite encased in a wooden handle” (22). The greatest development of the pencil occurred in the twentieth century “when manufacturers learned to attach rubber tips to inexpensive wood pencils by means of a brass clamp” (31). This was met with opposition, however, as with this development,
“American schools allowed no crossing out. Teachers preferred pencils without erasers, arguing that students would do better, more premeditated work if they didn’t have the option of revising” (31).
The argument on behalf of twentieth-century teachers echoes the ideals of Plato, in that the inclusion of such technological developments might somehow inhibit those who use said developments. However, once the adaptability of pencils to writing was recognized, pencils (as a technology) inevitably became an aspect of writing.
The trend of writing technologies continues, as Baron recognizes the most modern aspect of writing technology; computers. Though relatively new to the world, computers have essentially become the epicenter of many aspects things, including writing. Curiously, Baron establishes that the origins of the computers (as a technology) mimics its predecessors, in that “personal computer were not initially meant for word processing, though that has since become one of their primary functions” (27). Much like its technological predecessors, the computer was met with much scrutiny upon its inception.
Cynthia L. Selfe’s Technology and Literacy in the Twenty-First Century discusses the early origins of computers within the classroom and the complexities associated with such. She explains the incorporation of the first classroom-friendly computers as emerging in 1980 amongst high hopes,
“Teachers hoped that computers could somehow democratize American classrooms. As the culturally informed reasoning went, if the nation could put enough computers into enough schools, then all students–regardless of socio-economic status, race, or gender—would have access to technology and thus to success through the technologically supported power structures of the American culture.” (65)
Essentially, the inception of the computer was exciting for many reasons. The versatility of this new educational technology really surrounded the desire for making education attainable and equal for all. However, these high hopes were soon met with a number of complexities. Among said complexities included the recognition that though computers were noted as valuable tools, the resources for harnessing these tools, as well as adequately preparing teachers to utilize this technology simply was not available (Selfe 72). Other complexities associated with the incorporation of computers within the classroom stemmed from resistance on behalf of teachers themselves, many of whom were from the field of teaching writing.
Selfe writes that, “composition teachers often resorted to the readily available commercial software packages. This software was frequently written by programmers who had very little experience in teaching English” (69). Thus, educators associated with teaching writing would simply appease the calling of the administration by incorporating computers into their lesson plans, although said technology was not truly effective. This means of incorporation for appeasement “resisted meaningful change, using computers to reinforce older, more conventional ways of teaching” (69). Selfe further establishes that “computers were seen as a means of reducing student-generated error in composition and literacy classrooms” (69).
Despite these early issues, however, the usage of computers within the classroom has managed to progress in recent years. Selfe notes that by the end of the 1990’s, “educators at all levels were adopting the new, official vision of technological literacy as a practical way of preparing students for success in an increasingly technological twenty-first century” (85). Although the ideal of using computers as an educational technology was met with much initial scrutiny, within recent years educators have recognized its versatility and have subsequently harnessed it. Thus, computers have effectively been proven to be successfully incorporated into education.
Furthering the ideals set forth by Cynthia Selfe, it is incredibly important for teachers of all concentrations to recognize that technology is an aspect of our profession that is not going away. It has been progressively growing, becoming more integrated into the educational curriculum with each passing year. Thus, embracing the technological grasp rather than fighting it is ideal. As Scott DeWitt and Marcia Dickson argue, “learning that comes from taking what others might consider foolish chances is often the basis of innovative thought” (Fools Rush In, 69).
Fools Rush In is an article compiled by Dewitt and Dickson that discusses the facilitation of student learning via the incorporation of technology. The text establishes the early conceptual framework of technology and education as being independent of one another, “technology should be secondary and used as a means to achieve our primary goal of facilitating student learning” (69). This statement suggests that in its early years, technology in itself was considered merely a tool in the realm of education; a support to aid in the overall learning experience. However, technology has since grown to become an integral part of education today.
Coinciding with the ideals of Dewitt and Dickson, it is important to consider how technology affects a more specific aspect of education: writing. Though some may not necessarily consider writing as a top candidate for being influenced by technology, “computers have transformed and will continue to transform writing instruction” (Eldred/Toner, 33). This statement, though bold, suggests that writing has been severely altered by technology, although it is “often seen as the new kid on the block, unwelcome in a firmly established neighborhood” (35). Eldred and Toner exemplify some aspects of writing with technological emphasis in their essay, Technology as Teacher: Augmenting (Transforming) Writing Instruction. Specifically focused on are the steps of writing; generating ideas for research, drafting, peer and instructor reviewing, editing and grading.
Eldred and Toner first examine what they deem as “one of the most obvious ways that technology is changing the way we teach composition” (38); the internet. Initially dubbed as the World Wide Web, the internet can effectively be used to gather information. This information can subsequently be used as the backbone to any piece of educated composition. Instead of being slave to the traditional card indexes often associated with libraries, the World Wide Web allows for students and educators alike to gather information at their own will, and in a much clean, concise manner. The simplicity and efficiency associated with this means of research has its drawbacks however, as Elder/Toner explain,
“Writing instructors now need to set aside time to teach students (a) how to evaluate web sources for their “slant” or attitude toward or investment in a topic, (b) how to determine a web site’s sponsoring agency from its URL and other clues, and (c) how to obtain quality information through subscription services…” (38)
In order to better educate students how to effectively perform online research, teachers themselves need to learn how to as well. This can be done via a “teachers teaching teachers” method, where fellow educators set aside an amount of time during staff development days that is strictly dedicated to technological instruction.
Another drawback associated with utilizing the internet as a primary means of research is the increased potential for plagiarism. Elder/Toner cite that “the purchasing of papers or the ‘pasting’” (38) of text is a notable issue, as some students may consider this an easier means of completing the assignment. Educators can combat this, however, by performing a quick “key-word search on a popular search engine like Google…” (38) as an efficient means of uncovering stolen information.
Drafting, another important aspect of writing, is identified by Elder/Toner as able to be successfully oriented with technology. “The web changed the way we obtain information, word processing completely changed the way we compose it” (38). Elder/Toner cite the typewriter as the predecessor to the modern-day word processor, but soon establish that “word processing is definitely here to stay; it’s now part of the writing class’s furniture” (39). Word processors, such as the popular Microsoft Word, allow students to have a free-flow of thoughts without having to worry about strenuous editing. Additional facets of word processors include pre-made templates, which physically designate locations on the document where information should be placed, as well as physical on-screen guides that offer helpful advice.
Elder/Toner make mention of how technology manages to incorporate itself within the reviewing process of writing as well. Particularly, they cite electronic, or e-mail, as a primary means of review.
“Students might email instructors or peers for advice and feedback on papers in progress. In some cases works in progress are attached, looked over, and sent back with email comments” (40)
The versatility associated with email allows for instant feedback in regard to virtually any type of composition. Since Microsoft Word and word processors of the like are commonplace, many individuals have these particular programs already installed on their home computer. Thus the process of attaching a document via email and clicking ‘send’ is relatively elementary. The recipient can then review the document, either post comments within their reply or the document itself, and send it back to the original sender.
The main drawback to review by means of word processing, according to Elder/Toner, resounds in the impersonal nature of the entire charade. Their claim is that “somehow deleting and adding words to electronic text feels like authoring in a way that striking phrases and writing in words or phrases do not” (40). This mindset coincides with the simplistic means of editing an electronic document via removing the disputed word or phrase, and replacing it with a more appropriate one. However, the authors may not be aware of a recent advancement in word processing technology. Recent editions of Microsoft Word provide a ‘review’ tab on the menu bar. This tab has a number of options, including the option to add ‘comments’ within a document. The comments appear as red balloons within the work space of the word processor allowing for better examination by the viewer. Comments can then be ‘accepted’ or ‘rejected’ at the will of the author.
Eldred/Toner lastly cite publishing and grading as being influenced heavily by technology. Within their text, these individuals make mention of a number of ways to publish to the web through various, dated software. This generation of internet usage associates with the ideals as put forth by Carolyn Handa. Her essay, Teaching with the World Wide Web: Transforming Theory, Pedagogy and Practice, idealizes “the Web’s ability to display information in ways that draw on graphic design techniques, video clips and sound bites” (167). Combined, this approach successfully establishes pedagogy, or methods of instruction, via the internet. Furthermore, Handa lists a number “of ways to use technology in pedagogically effective ways” (170), including engaging students in active learning and connecting learning with real life. MOOs provided an early means of bridging the gap between the versatility of the internet, and effective pedagogy.
A MOO (Multi-User Domain, Object-Oriented) “is a computer program that allows people from all over the world to connect via the Internet to a text-based virtual world where they can interact with each other…” (Mooniversity, 1). Essentially, this programs acts as a hub for people to meet with one another, electronically. The development of MOOs was a very exciting first step toward linking classroom instruction by means of the internet. In terms of education, 1992 MIT graduate Amy Bruckman first imagined the MOO as an online meeting place (Holmevik/Haynes, 3). From there, MOOs developed into a more professional backdrop, eventually becoming web-based. MOOs have had much influence on the internet today, providing the framework for a new means of internet publishing, dubbed “Web 2.0”. Web 2.0 is acknowledged as the second generation of web development.
Instances of Web 2.0 developments include the famed social-networking tool, Twitter. This particular tool may not seem to associate well with teaching writing, but at second glance it proves to an effective means. The concept behind Twitter is that users are to submit a 140-character web ‘post’ regarding anything that pertains to their lives. Many people use this as a way to update their ‘followers’ of the current goings on in their life. However, this Web 2.0 product appeals to teaching writing, as students who use this service are essentially providing 140-character autobiographies. Furthermore, this means of autobiographical updating improves students’ typing ability, as well as their tendencies for correct syntax, grammar and spelling. Twitter is just one of many specific Web 2.0 developments that re-hash the ideal that teaching writing can be combined with technology.
Despite much opposition, technology has successfully crossed the line of not only writing, but progressively entwined itself into education today. By following the direction of Eldred and Toner it is simple to see the correlation between modern classroom instruction of teaching writing, and instructional technology. Such versatility has increased in recent years, thus developing Web 2.0, and subsequently providing yet another technological outlet for tomorrow’s students. Effectively, this technological evolution has furthered the realm of education, helping establish pedagogical success in regard to teaching writing.
Works Cited
DeWitt, Scott L., and Marcia Dickson. "Fools Rush In." Teaching Writing With Computers An Introduction. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2002. 69-79. Print.
Eldred, Janet C., and Lisa Toner. "Technology as Teacher: Augmenting (Transforming) Writing Instruction." Teaching Writing With Computers An Introduction. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2002. 33-54. Print.
Handa, Carolyn. "Teaching with the World Wide Web: Transforming Theory, Pedagogy, and Practice." Teaching Writing With Computers An Introduction. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2002. 166-81. Print.
Holmevik, Jan R., and Cynthia Haynes. MOOniversity: A Student's Guide to Online Learning Environments. Needham Heights: Allyn & Bacon, 2000. Print.
Selfe, Cynthia L. Technology and literacy in the twenty-first century the importance of paying attention. Carbondale: Southern Illinois UP, 1999. Print.
Takayoshi, Pamela, and Brian Huot. Teaching Writing With Computers An Introduction. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2002. Print.
To understand the progression of technology within teaching writing, one must first trace its origins. Denis Baron asserts that “the first technology was writing itself” (From Pencils to Pixels, 18). This suggests that writing in itself was an innovation, as communication preceding this was accomplished by mere gestures and verbal exchange. The development of writing, however, was met with much opposition. Baron affirms his argument by stating, “Just like the telegraph and the computer, writing itself was once an innovation strongly resisted by traditionalist because it was unnatural and untrustworthy” (18). Though initially incorporated as a means of record-keeping, arguments regarding utilizing writing were brought about by Plato, who feared “that it would weaken our memories” (18). This fear, however, did not keep the spread of technology from occurring. The incorporation of technology within teaching writing has clearly maintained its share of critics and supporters, even from the very beginning.
Early writers eventually recognized the versatility of writing, and though not intended, soon shifted the designation of writing from record-keeping to transcription. Baron cites the development of the pencil as the next notable development in writing technology (Baron 22). Though there were primitive means of transcription, no universal tool was adapted until the inception of the pencil. Similar to writing, the pencil began as a device that was not initially designed to be incorporated into writing.
Baron notes that pencils were first intended mainly “for woodworkers, not writers” (27). Beginning initially as a mere lead-pointed stylus, the pencil progressed to a “piece of graphite encased in a wooden handle” (22). The greatest development of the pencil occurred in the twentieth century “when manufacturers learned to attach rubber tips to inexpensive wood pencils by means of a brass clamp” (31). This was met with opposition, however, as with this development,
“American schools allowed no crossing out. Teachers preferred pencils without erasers, arguing that students would do better, more premeditated work if they didn’t have the option of revising” (31).
The argument on behalf of twentieth-century teachers echoes the ideals of Plato, in that the inclusion of such technological developments might somehow inhibit those who use said developments. However, once the adaptability of pencils to writing was recognized, pencils (as a technology) inevitably became an aspect of writing.
The trend of writing technologies continues, as Baron recognizes the most modern aspect of writing technology; computers. Though relatively new to the world, computers have essentially become the epicenter of many aspects things, including writing. Curiously, Baron establishes that the origins of the computers (as a technology) mimics its predecessors, in that “personal computer were not initially meant for word processing, though that has since become one of their primary functions” (27). Much like its technological predecessors, the computer was met with much scrutiny upon its inception.
Cynthia L. Selfe’s Technology and Literacy in the Twenty-First Century discusses the early origins of computers within the classroom and the complexities associated with such. She explains the incorporation of the first classroom-friendly computers as emerging in 1980 amongst high hopes,
“Teachers hoped that computers could somehow democratize American classrooms. As the culturally informed reasoning went, if the nation could put enough computers into enough schools, then all students–regardless of socio-economic status, race, or gender—would have access to technology and thus to success through the technologically supported power structures of the American culture.” (65)
Essentially, the inception of the computer was exciting for many reasons. The versatility of this new educational technology really surrounded the desire for making education attainable and equal for all. However, these high hopes were soon met with a number of complexities. Among said complexities included the recognition that though computers were noted as valuable tools, the resources for harnessing these tools, as well as adequately preparing teachers to utilize this technology simply was not available (Selfe 72). Other complexities associated with the incorporation of computers within the classroom stemmed from resistance on behalf of teachers themselves, many of whom were from the field of teaching writing.
Selfe writes that, “composition teachers often resorted to the readily available commercial software packages. This software was frequently written by programmers who had very little experience in teaching English” (69). Thus, educators associated with teaching writing would simply appease the calling of the administration by incorporating computers into their lesson plans, although said technology was not truly effective. This means of incorporation for appeasement “resisted meaningful change, using computers to reinforce older, more conventional ways of teaching” (69). Selfe further establishes that “computers were seen as a means of reducing student-generated error in composition and literacy classrooms” (69).
Despite these early issues, however, the usage of computers within the classroom has managed to progress in recent years. Selfe notes that by the end of the 1990’s, “educators at all levels were adopting the new, official vision of technological literacy as a practical way of preparing students for success in an increasingly technological twenty-first century” (85). Although the ideal of using computers as an educational technology was met with much initial scrutiny, within recent years educators have recognized its versatility and have subsequently harnessed it. Thus, computers have effectively been proven to be successfully incorporated into education.
Furthering the ideals set forth by Cynthia Selfe, it is incredibly important for teachers of all concentrations to recognize that technology is an aspect of our profession that is not going away. It has been progressively growing, becoming more integrated into the educational curriculum with each passing year. Thus, embracing the technological grasp rather than fighting it is ideal. As Scott DeWitt and Marcia Dickson argue, “learning that comes from taking what others might consider foolish chances is often the basis of innovative thought” (Fools Rush In, 69).
Fools Rush In is an article compiled by Dewitt and Dickson that discusses the facilitation of student learning via the incorporation of technology. The text establishes the early conceptual framework of technology and education as being independent of one another, “technology should be secondary and used as a means to achieve our primary goal of facilitating student learning” (69). This statement suggests that in its early years, technology in itself was considered merely a tool in the realm of education; a support to aid in the overall learning experience. However, technology has since grown to become an integral part of education today.
Coinciding with the ideals of Dewitt and Dickson, it is important to consider how technology affects a more specific aspect of education: writing. Though some may not necessarily consider writing as a top candidate for being influenced by technology, “computers have transformed and will continue to transform writing instruction” (Eldred/Toner, 33). This statement, though bold, suggests that writing has been severely altered by technology, although it is “often seen as the new kid on the block, unwelcome in a firmly established neighborhood” (35). Eldred and Toner exemplify some aspects of writing with technological emphasis in their essay, Technology as Teacher: Augmenting (Transforming) Writing Instruction. Specifically focused on are the steps of writing; generating ideas for research, drafting, peer and instructor reviewing, editing and grading.
Eldred and Toner first examine what they deem as “one of the most obvious ways that technology is changing the way we teach composition” (38); the internet. Initially dubbed as the World Wide Web, the internet can effectively be used to gather information. This information can subsequently be used as the backbone to any piece of educated composition. Instead of being slave to the traditional card indexes often associated with libraries, the World Wide Web allows for students and educators alike to gather information at their own will, and in a much clean, concise manner. The simplicity and efficiency associated with this means of research has its drawbacks however, as Elder/Toner explain,
“Writing instructors now need to set aside time to teach students (a) how to evaluate web sources for their “slant” or attitude toward or investment in a topic, (b) how to determine a web site’s sponsoring agency from its URL and other clues, and (c) how to obtain quality information through subscription services…” (38)
In order to better educate students how to effectively perform online research, teachers themselves need to learn how to as well. This can be done via a “teachers teaching teachers” method, where fellow educators set aside an amount of time during staff development days that is strictly dedicated to technological instruction.
Another drawback associated with utilizing the internet as a primary means of research is the increased potential for plagiarism. Elder/Toner cite that “the purchasing of papers or the ‘pasting’” (38) of text is a notable issue, as some students may consider this an easier means of completing the assignment. Educators can combat this, however, by performing a quick “key-word search on a popular search engine like Google…” (38) as an efficient means of uncovering stolen information.
Drafting, another important aspect of writing, is identified by Elder/Toner as able to be successfully oriented with technology. “The web changed the way we obtain information, word processing completely changed the way we compose it” (38). Elder/Toner cite the typewriter as the predecessor to the modern-day word processor, but soon establish that “word processing is definitely here to stay; it’s now part of the writing class’s furniture” (39). Word processors, such as the popular Microsoft Word, allow students to have a free-flow of thoughts without having to worry about strenuous editing. Additional facets of word processors include pre-made templates, which physically designate locations on the document where information should be placed, as well as physical on-screen guides that offer helpful advice.
Elder/Toner make mention of how technology manages to incorporate itself within the reviewing process of writing as well. Particularly, they cite electronic, or e-mail, as a primary means of review.
“Students might email instructors or peers for advice and feedback on papers in progress. In some cases works in progress are attached, looked over, and sent back with email comments” (40)
The versatility associated with email allows for instant feedback in regard to virtually any type of composition. Since Microsoft Word and word processors of the like are commonplace, many individuals have these particular programs already installed on their home computer. Thus the process of attaching a document via email and clicking ‘send’ is relatively elementary. The recipient can then review the document, either post comments within their reply or the document itself, and send it back to the original sender.
The main drawback to review by means of word processing, according to Elder/Toner, resounds in the impersonal nature of the entire charade. Their claim is that “somehow deleting and adding words to electronic text feels like authoring in a way that striking phrases and writing in words or phrases do not” (40). This mindset coincides with the simplistic means of editing an electronic document via removing the disputed word or phrase, and replacing it with a more appropriate one. However, the authors may not be aware of a recent advancement in word processing technology. Recent editions of Microsoft Word provide a ‘review’ tab on the menu bar. This tab has a number of options, including the option to add ‘comments’ within a document. The comments appear as red balloons within the work space of the word processor allowing for better examination by the viewer. Comments can then be ‘accepted’ or ‘rejected’ at the will of the author.
Eldred/Toner lastly cite publishing and grading as being influenced heavily by technology. Within their text, these individuals make mention of a number of ways to publish to the web through various, dated software. This generation of internet usage associates with the ideals as put forth by Carolyn Handa. Her essay, Teaching with the World Wide Web: Transforming Theory, Pedagogy and Practice, idealizes “the Web’s ability to display information in ways that draw on graphic design techniques, video clips and sound bites” (167). Combined, this approach successfully establishes pedagogy, or methods of instruction, via the internet. Furthermore, Handa lists a number “of ways to use technology in pedagogically effective ways” (170), including engaging students in active learning and connecting learning with real life. MOOs provided an early means of bridging the gap between the versatility of the internet, and effective pedagogy.
A MOO (Multi-User Domain, Object-Oriented) “is a computer program that allows people from all over the world to connect via the Internet to a text-based virtual world where they can interact with each other…” (Mooniversity, 1). Essentially, this programs acts as a hub for people to meet with one another, electronically. The development of MOOs was a very exciting first step toward linking classroom instruction by means of the internet. In terms of education, 1992 MIT graduate Amy Bruckman first imagined the MOO as an online meeting place (Holmevik/Haynes, 3). From there, MOOs developed into a more professional backdrop, eventually becoming web-based. MOOs have had much influence on the internet today, providing the framework for a new means of internet publishing, dubbed “Web 2.0”. Web 2.0 is acknowledged as the second generation of web development.
Instances of Web 2.0 developments include the famed social-networking tool, Twitter. This particular tool may not seem to associate well with teaching writing, but at second glance it proves to an effective means. The concept behind Twitter is that users are to submit a 140-character web ‘post’ regarding anything that pertains to their lives. Many people use this as a way to update their ‘followers’ of the current goings on in their life. However, this Web 2.0 product appeals to teaching writing, as students who use this service are essentially providing 140-character autobiographies. Furthermore, this means of autobiographical updating improves students’ typing ability, as well as their tendencies for correct syntax, grammar and spelling. Twitter is just one of many specific Web 2.0 developments that re-hash the ideal that teaching writing can be combined with technology.
Despite much opposition, technology has successfully crossed the line of not only writing, but progressively entwined itself into education today. By following the direction of Eldred and Toner it is simple to see the correlation between modern classroom instruction of teaching writing, and instructional technology. Such versatility has increased in recent years, thus developing Web 2.0, and subsequently providing yet another technological outlet for tomorrow’s students. Effectively, this technological evolution has furthered the realm of education, helping establish pedagogical success in regard to teaching writing.
Works Cited
DeWitt, Scott L., and Marcia Dickson. "Fools Rush In." Teaching Writing With Computers An Introduction. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2002. 69-79. Print.
Eldred, Janet C., and Lisa Toner. "Technology as Teacher: Augmenting (Transforming) Writing Instruction." Teaching Writing With Computers An Introduction. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2002. 33-54. Print.
Handa, Carolyn. "Teaching with the World Wide Web: Transforming Theory, Pedagogy, and Practice." Teaching Writing With Computers An Introduction. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2002. 166-81. Print.
Holmevik, Jan R., and Cynthia Haynes. MOOniversity: A Student's Guide to Online Learning Environments. Needham Heights: Allyn & Bacon, 2000. Print.
Selfe, Cynthia L. Technology and literacy in the twenty-first century the importance of paying attention. Carbondale: Southern Illinois UP, 1999. Print.
Takayoshi, Pamela, and Brian Huot. Teaching Writing With Computers An Introduction. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2002. Print.